The Tribal Heartland: Odisha’s Indigenous Civilisations and the Future of Plural India

Odisha, situated on India’s eastern coast, is home to a significant population of Scheduled Tribes—comprising more than 22% of the state’s total population. With 62 officially recognized tribes, including 13 categorized as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), Odisha represents one of the richest repositories of tribal diversity in South Asia.

These communities are distributed primarily across the southern, central, and western districts—such as Koraput, Malkangiri, Kandhamal, Mayurbhanj, and Rayagada—where forested terrain, hills, and river valleys have supported distinct forms of settlement, subsistence, and cultural expression.

Demography and Classification

The tribal population of Odisha includes larger communities such as the Santhal, Kondh, Gond, Ho, and Munda, as well as smaller groups like the Bonda, Dongria Kondh, Saora, and Juang. The state’s PVTGs are characterized by pre-agricultural economies, low literacy rates, and small, often isolated populations.

Census data and anthropological surveys provide detailed documentation of these communities, noting variations in language, ritual practice, land use, social hierarchy, and kinship structures. While many groups have historically been dependent on agriculture and forest-based livelihoods, patterns of economic activity and social mobility are gradually shifting due to market integration, education, and infrastructural development.

Languages and Oral Traditions

Most tribal languages in Odisha belong to the Austroasiatic (Munda) and Dravidian language families, distinct from the Indo-Aryan Odia language spoken in the plains. These include languages such as Kui (Kondh), Remo (Bonda), Juang, Saora, and Mundari. They are primarily oral, with strong traditions of storytelling, ritual chants, and symbolic communication.

Many of these languages face endangerment due to declining intergenerational transmission and limited representation in formal education systems. Government and NGO-led efforts are currently underway to document and revitalize tribal languages through digital dictionaries, community media, and mother-tongue education pilots.

Social Institutions and Governance

Tribal societies in Odisha are generally organized around clan-based and lineage systems, with variations in social structure depending on the group. Traditional councils of elders, village assemblies, and ritual specialists play important roles in dispute resolution, social regulation, and ceremonial leadership.

While these systems historically functioned autonomously, contemporary tribal governance is now interlinked with panchayati raj institutions, forest rights committees, and district administration frameworks. The intersection of customary law with statutory law presents both opportunities and challenges—particularly in relation to land rights, gender roles, and democratic participation.

Economy and Land Use

Agriculture remains the primary livelihood for most tribal groups, supplemented by shifting cultivation, collection of minor forest produce (MFP), wage labor, and local crafts. In regions like Kandhamal and Rayagada, communities have diversified into horticulture (turmeric, ginger, millets) and eco-tourism initiatives.

The implementation of the Forest Rights Act (2006) has enabled some tribal communities to gain legal recognition over forest land and community resources, although the process remains uneven across districts. Market access, supply chain infrastructure, and financial inclusion continue to shape the sustainability of tribal economies.

Arts, Festivals, and Material Culture

Tribal groups in Odisha are known for their rich traditions in craft, music, dance, and ritual art.

• The Saora wall paintings (iktala or idital) represent mythological themes and social narratives using geometric patterns.

• The Bonda beadwork and headgear, Kondh wood carvings, and Gadaba textiles reflect intricate symbolic systems.

• Seasonal festivals—such as Chaitra Parab, Magha Yatra, and Karam—blend agricultural cycles with religious rituals.

These practices are not only forms of cultural expression but also function as oral archives, intergenerational knowledge systems, and community-building tools. Several of them have gained recognition through state-sponsored cultural programs and museums.

Education and Development Indicators

Literacy rates among tribal communities in Odisha have improved significantly in recent decades, aided by the Establishment of Ashram schools, hostels, and scholarship schemes. However, dropout rates, language barriers, and poor infrastructure remain persistent issues, especially in interior areas.

Health indicators, including maternal health, nutrition, and access to public health services, vary widely across tribal groups and regions. Targeted programs under the Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA) and PVTG-specific development initiatives have been introduced, though implementation challenges continue.

Contemporary Transitions

Many tribal youth in Odisha are now accessing higher education, vocational training, and digital technologies. Migration for seasonal labor, as well as employment in construction and mining sectors, has increased. This has led to shifts in gender roles, language use, and social mobility.

At the same time, communities continue to engage with issues of environmental displacement, land acquisition, and cultural change. There is ongoing debate about how best to balance development goals with cultural preservation and self-determination.

Policy and Governance Outlook

Odisha’s tribal policy framework is shaped by a combination of central and state-level institutions, including the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Odisha ST & SC Development Department, Tribal Advisory Councils, and civil society actors. The emphasis is increasingly on rights-based, participatory, and locally contextualized approaches to development.

Future directions include:

• Expanding mother-tongue education and multilingual pedagogy

• Strengthening community forest governance and land titling

• Supporting tribal entrepreneurship and value chain development

• Promoting digital documentation of culture and language

• Enhancing data systems for disaggregated planning and monitoring

Conclusion

The tribes of Odisha represent a dynamic segment of Indian society, with a long history of adaptation, resilience, and cultural innovation. As Odisha continues its trajectory of growth and infrastructure expansion, ensuring that tribal communities remain active stakeholders—rather than passive beneficiaries—will be essential.

Integrating cultural understanding with development planning can help build more equitable, plural, and locally informed models of governance. The story of Odisha’s tribes, then, is not only about heritage—it is also about the future.

About the Author:
This article was written for The Hind, the think tank and cultural lab of The Hind School, focused on India-centred research and field-based inquiry.